Peter the Great and Catherine the Great

Outline


Peter:
       Made Russia more like Europe
       Changed the Capital of Russia
       Let his personal beliefs influence how he ran his country

Catherine:
       Continued with the reforms that Peter had established
       Abandoned her husband so she could rise to power
       Patronized the arts and founded academies

Thesis:
       The two greatest rulers of Russia changed their country with their own personal ideas: Peter the Great's knowledge concerning the fundamental ideas that had allowed Western Europe to grow and prosper coupled with his own radical ideas changed Russia drastically, and then Catherine the Great revolutionized the country even further with her patronage of the arts and her skill as a diplomat.


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       In the late 17th century, Russia appeared to be falling behind on the times. It was not an influential country, and it did not have the power to become one. Peter the Great wanted to see to it that this was changed for the better. He instituted a multitude of reforms to try and make Russia more like its Wester European neighbors. Catherine the Great saw to it that Russia was made even stronger than Peter had made it. She placed a few of her own reforms and established academies and libraries. Each of the great rulers worked off of each other. Without Peter, Catherine would not have made such drastic changes by herself, and Peter would not have done anything had he not been sure that his reforms would be enforced and even lengthened by another noble.The two greatest rulers of Russia changed their country with their own personal ideas: Peter the Great's knowledge concerning the fundamental ideas that had allowed Western Europe to grow and prosper coupled with his own radical ideas changed Russia drastically, and then Catherine the Great revolutionized the country even further with her patronage of the arts and her skill as a diplomat.

       During his reign throughout the late 1600's and early 1700's, Peter the Great found a great need for change in Russia. In Peter the Great's mind, Russia was not as modernized as the rest of the world. He took much inspiration from Western Europe and went so far as to borrow military tactics from the west. He also worked in Western Europe and gleaned many useful techniques in the areas of industry and administration. Even though Peter's Russia was becoming more up-to-date with the times, he still had to make it better. The greatest and most controversial reform that Peter initiated was the change of the capital city. His new city was to be built from the ground up on the Gulf of Finland. The capital was changed from Moscow to St. Petersburg partially because Peter had never liked Moscow from a young age and partly because he wanted to have a port city so that he could train a navy. Unlike many great rulers before him, Peter allowed his personal beliefs influence how he ruled. This made him a much more powerful Emperor.

       Catherine the Great helped to re-institute some of the reforms that Peter had made that had not been upheld after his reign. Even when she was not officially the sovereign of Russia, Catherine was still well respected by many and by some she was respected even more so than her husband, the true Tsar of Russia. Catherine wanted to rule Russia, and she knew she had supporters, and she abandoned her husband to do so. She was a skilled diplomat who was able to increase Russia's influence in external affairs, a dream that Peter had always wanted. Her patronage of the arts advanced Russia socially. She founded museums, libraries, and academies after her adoration of the arts and knowledge. She wanted to have her citizens educated, and she wanted for there to be equal opportunities for boys and girls. Unfortunately, Catherine repealed many of her and Peter's reforms. In some ways, Catherine helped Russia become a great world power, but towards the end of her reign, she made things worse for her country, something that Peter would not have appreciated.  

       Russia was greatly changed by both Peter the Great and Catherine the Great during each Great's reign. While Peter focussed more on how to make Russia more westernized, Catherine focussed on how to make her country more intellectually sound. During each ruler's rule, Russia was morphed from a mildly known, semi-powerful nation into a country that was intelligent, powerful, and capable of supporting an army and a navy. However, after every change that seemed to better the nation, the peasantry was left reeling. Since everyone in Russia was not charmed by the changes, Russia would never become the world's greatest nation. Peter and Catherine had done what they thought was right, but ended up making a few aspects of their country worse. Many of  Peter and Catherine's reforms aided the nation in prospering greatly, but many others would lead to its demise, so through the ages other changes had to be made. Peter and Catherine's reigns would never be forgotten, but in the eyes of some, they died in infamy.

       Together, Peter the Great and Catherine the Great were the greatest rulers that Russia had seen up until their respective rules. But neither would have seemed great or had as much of an impact had it not been for the other one. Peter was very controversial during his reign with his changing of the capital city, and he was not readily accepted by the commoners. He had faith that after him, there would come another ruler who would revitalize what he had done. This next great ruler was Catherine. She established some of her own reforms and also let Peter's original ideas grow. Without Peter, Catherine would never have had the initiative to change Russia as drastically, and without Catherine, Peter's ideas would have been lost.

Peter the Great

Peter the Great

• Peter the Great expanded Russia 
• Muscovy had been a tributary of the Mongols. 
• Peter the Great pushed back the people stopping Moscow from expanding. 
• He dreamed of conquering Constantinople, which would have given him access to an important body of water.
• The Black Sea was very important to Peter the Great
• Despite Peter's expansion of the Russian Empire did not receive the Black Sea
• The Battle for the Black Sea represented Russia's minimal involvement in affairs. 
• No other European state had been expanding overseas. 
• Peter the Great's expansion of Russia would influence Europe and Asia greatly. 
• Peter the Great opened Russia up to western European ideas
• Peter's rule was from 1682 until his death in 1725
• The Duma 
• Peter was an absolute ruler and his personality influenced how he ruled. 
• Peter the Great was not the poster child for a czar. He married a Latvian woman, and he did not dress in fancy enough clothes. 
• He associated with the common people
• He did not like Moscow, particularly because of its religious power. 
• The Boyars learned Latin and Polish 
• Muscovy had conquered the Voyar Basin 
• Peter the Great wanted to acquire a navy
• He built a navy on rivers with men from different nations
• He learned carpentry and then went to a medical school. 
• He became interested in the scientific revolution
• While building his navy, Peter the made the Boyars Junior partners in absolutism.

 

Exam

DBQ


Commoners still liked the king, but were not fond of Thomas Cromwell. 
People felt that they had to fight for themselves, that nothing would get done if they didn't do it. 
The people wished for the king to listen to them, and they had many things to ask and tell him. 
Pilgrimage of Grace was not peaceful, many were convicted of treason. 


During the reign of King Henry VIII he made himself the head of the Anglican Church. Thomas Cromwell then instituted many new laws and regulations that had to be followed. The people of England were not happy with Thomas Cromwell's decisions and organized the Pilgrimage of Grace to try and return England to what it had once been. The people felt that they had been betrayed by their most beloved leader. If no one would help them they would have to help themselves. The members of the Pilgrimage of Grace wanted the King to have full power over their state, yet felt that they could do well on their own, but those who were opposed to the movement felt that the people of the Pilgrimage of Grace should be imprisoned.

The protesters of the new laws put into effect by Thomas Cromwell took an oath before they were accepted into the Pilgrimage called the "Oath of Honorable Men". This oath states, "You shall not enter into our Pilgrimage of Grace for worldly gain. Do so only for your love of God,... for the purification of all nobility" (Doc. 1). The members of the march believed that what they were doing was for the good of the state, and that they were doing it for God. The goals of the protesters are outlined in a petition to the King's Council. It says, "We humbly beseech our most Sovereign King...to have Thomas Cromwell... punished as a subverter of the good laws of this realm" (Doc. 5). Document 6, an anonymous pamphlet, stated that the people wanted Thomas Cromwell exiled from England. The people wanted to see Thomas Cromwell out of power, and have the King take over his position, instead of being the head of the Church. The people thought of King Henry VIII to be just under God, and knew that he could make their world a peaceful one.

The people who made up the Pilgrimage of Grace believed that if their goals of having Henry put back into a position of absolute power, they would have to take it upon themselves to get the job done. The Marcher's Proclamation stated, "Because the rulers of this country do not defend us from being robbed by thieves and Scots we have to rely on charity, faith, poverty, and pity" (Doc. 2). The people were slowly losing faith in their rulers and felt that they would have to rely on their own powers if they wanted to have a chance of being a part of a successful nation. There was also a ballad that outlined that the people feared would happen if King Henry did not fix the problems. It reads, "Robbed, spoiled and and shorn of cattle and corn" (Doc. 4). The people thought they their villages would be pillaged if King Henry did not abolish the laws of Cromwell.

Even though the Pilgrimage of Grace had many followers, there were still some supporters of Cromwell who had their own points of view on the matter. Richard Morrison wrote, "An order must be had and a way found so that the better rule the rest" (Doc. 7). He is referencing Thomas Cromwell and how he is a better ruler than Henry ever could have been. King Henry himself commented on the Pilgrimage of Faith. He proclaimed, "You have given comfort to your enemies the Scots, to the high displeasure of God" (Doc. 9). He told his subjects that they had done exactly the opposite of what they wanted and also displeased God. They did not want this to be so, and they were discouraged.

The Pilgrimage of Grace was a prime example of how the people loved their ruler to the end. They wanted to see him have absolute power and could not stand to see anyone else try and institute new laws. They were outraged. People took different sides and conflicts arose. People were imprisoned and many others faced horrible consequences. The members of the Pilgrimage feared that their country was going to be shattered. They were only doing what they thought was right, and what they thought would benefit the common good.

 

Exam

Describe and analyze how overseas expansion by European states affected global trade and international relations from 1600 to 1750.


Competition arose over who owned what property. 
There was also competition to discover certain waterway paths. 
Trade was made easier for some, while others who could not traverse the seas were left behind. 
Some international relations were left intact, while new alliances arose.   


The age of exploration in Europe had many repercussions that lasted for centuries. Countries  wanted to discover important resources, and the competition was fierce. The unexplored part of the world was rumored to have many usable resources, and most every large power in Europe wanted to see it for themselves. There was also competition between countries to find waterways to make trade more productive and available. Some countries developed alliances to find the paths and resources first. There was also issues over colonization; about which country owned the rights to which piece of land. The age of exploration in Europe led to countries competing over resources and land, produced a more productive trade system, and benefited many countries with their alliances.

The New World was rumored to have many resources that would benefit the entire world if they were acquired by the right types of people. Each and every country wanted to gain access to these resources, and competition arose. Some individual people wished to find the bounties for themselves. Pedro Cabral wanted to discover the Fountain of Youth that was said to be in the New World. Each country was coveting the same resources that were from the same places, and each was competing to be the first one to find them. Colonization was also an issue for Europeans, as there was no clear indication to determine which piece of the  New World belonged to which country. These competitions helped Europe develop into a more productive continent.

The trade system experience a great change with the dawn of exploration. Trade routes that used the sea as a pathway were established, and this helped the northern parts of Europe trade with the lower parts. By not having to go through different countries to establish trade alliances, countries like Spain found themselves in  less wars and times of unrest because of the age of exploration. Spices became easier to acquire as a result of the age of exploration. India had a corner on the spice market until spices were discovered in the New World. Countries in Europe then began to export their own spices, instead of having to have them imported from parts of Asia. Europe became a wealthier nation because of the age of exploration.

Overseas expansion changed the way some countries viewed their neighboring countries. Some alliances were made stronger, other were made obsolete, and some new alliances were formed. Portugal and Spain fought over land in South America, and their previous ties were soon forgotten. Other countries without the resources to explore overseas employed the help of stronger nations, and alliances were formed. Countries in Europe found it difficult to work together to acquire the resources that could be found overseas. For some countries it was impossible to do even travel overseas without the aid of another country, while others did not meddle with international relations, instead focusing on their own achievements.

The Age of Exploration in Europe led to many discoveries and achievements. Overseas expansion also helped the European nations become more unified as a whole. While there were a few countries who were only exploring for themselves, most countries allied with each other, and these alliances held even after the exploration had stopped. The Age of Exploration was a time of fiery competition for some countries, trying to find the most resources in the shortest amount of time. Trade routes were changed and new trade relations were established. Europe changed because of the Age of Exploration, and it would never return to its roots.    

Exam

Analyze at least two  factors that account for the rise and two factors that explain the decline of witchcraft persecution and trials in Europe in the period from 1580 to 1750. 

People were being influenced by the ruling powers of their time. 

People did not understand witchcraft, making them more afraid.

Persecutions stopped because people became educated. 

Those practicing witchcraft stopped doing so out of fear. 

Throughout the late 1500's and into the mid 1700's in Europe there was a great deal of unrest. The people of European society feared anything that would disrupt their relatively tranquil lives. Witchcraft gained much negative publicity in Europe in theses times. Even though some people may not have believed in witches, they did not want to be accused of witchcraft themselves, so they joined in on the hunt. In the late 16th century to the middle of the 18th century, witchcraft persecution gained popularity because the ruling powers were influencing their subjects to believe that witches were a negative power, and because people were not educated enough to understand that witches could not exist; the persecutions gained less popularity in Europe because people became more educated, and because there were no more people left who practiced witchcraft.

In the late 1500's, the ruling powers feared that they would be usurped and that their family dynasty would no longer be influential in society. Henry VIII was one man who tried everything in his power to ensure that he had an heir. Other rulers much like him could not secure heirs to their thrones. As a last resort, they tried to get people less interested in their personal lives and made the peasants more interested in finding evil folks and getting rid of them. The subjects did not know if what they were doing was right, or even if there were such things as witches. But each member of a successful society will obey the orders of the king. No one was strongly opposed to the idea of there being witches trying to disrupt society, in fact, people who practiced sorcery or used herbs to cure could have been called witches. People latched onto the ideas that their rulers told them to be true, and the witch hunt had begun. 

People in 17th century Europe were not always educated. Peasants in society were not able to get good educations and women were hardly allowed to learn anything at all. This ignorance kept the heat of the witchcraft persecution alive, because people did not fully understand what they were doing. They did not understand religion, so when they were told that the witches were consorting with Satan, they were frightened. The people who had acquired the title of being witches did not fully understand their role in society, either. Europeans did not have enough education to say that what they were doing was wrong, so no one in particular stood up against the masses and stopped the persecutions. So they raged on, the witches being burned, and the murderers not knowing the entire story. Facts were skewed and not one single person in society knew the true reason of the witch trials. 

The burning of witches soon evaporated out of the public's eye. Throughout the 200 year period that contained the witch trials, people became more educated. The entirety of society could not be ignorant for two centuries, and people began to research witches. The people who had been accused of being witches were only trying to find a profession, but the common people of society did not understand sorcery while the witches did. The people had been frightened by the instruments used by witches, and their medicinal practices. Eventually, people gained overall intelligence and the truth escaped. It was impossible for anyone to make contact with the devil or demons, and once peasants realized that the witch burnings ceased. 

Once word got out that people who practice witchcraft would be killed, most people who had previously been gifted in that area stopped what they were doing. They did not believe that they were messengers for the departed, it was all just a clever ruse for them to make money and be successful. They could easily give it up, and out of fear of death, that is what happened. As soon as the murderers had no one else  to kill, they had to admit that their conquest was over. Between the professionals who had been killed and  the witches who were still alive but retired from the business, the common people had to give up. Soon afterwards the witchcraft paranoia was no longer a topic of discussion for Europeans. 

In 16th and 18th century Europe, there were many upheavals. Witchcraft was a very notable example of how people would do whatever their king commanded without any holds barred. The education system did not cover witchcraft or sorcery, so the common people of society were in the dark about what they were up against. European society was intended to be blissful, and the people living in it wanted to keep it that way. If anything were to disrupt that peace, the people of European society would do anything they could to eliminate it. 

 

 

DBQ

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, science became a topic that interested many. The way people thought about the world they lived was changed. Science was not separate from the rest of the world, and thus was influenced by outside factors. In some ways, science was aided and made to be more effective. In other ways, science was hindered and ignored. Scientists encountered the problem of trying to present the truth in such a way that no one would be offended. The scientists in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries had to keep the ruling power in mind at all times, explain the universe in conjunction with religion, and be aware of social standings in order to be a successful scientist.


Politics played a big role in the life of a scientists. Scientists wanted to have their work be accepted by the king so that he would then show it to the rest of the kingdom. Nicolaus Copernicus wrote a dedication to Pope Paul III in his book On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres saying, "You, by Your influence and judgement, can readily hold the slanderers from biting" (Doc. 1). Copernicus knew that the Pope had power and could make his work known, and forcibly accepted; and if not, the Pope could at least keep people from trying Copernicus for hearsay.  Another scientist, Marin Mersenne, said in a letter to his patron regarding his scientific book, "If you object to anything, I am ready to remove it entirely" (Doc. 5). Even if all of the experiments had been true, Mersenne would have deleted anything from his work just to have it published under a name that was respected.

The scientists in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries had to make sure that what they said could be related to religion in some way. Walter Charleton in his Natual Philosophy of Epicurus, Gassendi, and Charleton wrote, "The creation and arrangement of the atoms can be connected to no other cause but to an Infinite Power and Wisdom" (Doc. 8). It may be possible that the sentence may not have originally been in the transcript, but in order to please religious fanatics of the time, a God-figure had been added to science. John Calvin, a theologian, commented on the Book of Genesis: "For astronomy is not only pleasant, but also very useful; it cannot be denied that this art unfold the admirable wisdom of God" (Doc. 2). Not only does Calvin insert religion into science, he proclaims that God Himself wants astronomy to be studied.

The social aspect of science may have had the greatest impact on the development of science. In Doc 9, Margaret Cavendish says, "Were it allowable for our sex, I might set up my own school of natural philosophy." In the seventeenth century, women were not strictly prohibited to experiment with science, but it was frowned upon if they attempted to gain fame with it. Document 6 explains how being social can enhance the scientific experience: "Friendship should be spread through the whole world of learning."

Conclusion

Exam Practice Essay

Analyze the ways in which European monarchs used both the arts and the sciences to
enhance state power in the period circa 1500–1800.


       Throughout the 1500's and well in the 1800's the arts and sciences of Europe expanded rapidly. Some of these achievements were accepted while others were condemned. European monarchs saw the arts and sciences as tools that could be used to change the way their states functioned. Some used the knowledge to get ahead, while others tried to stop the spread of the arts and sciences, lest they meet their end. European monarchs used the arts and sciences to give themselves fame, and to advance the way of thinking of their state; but others did not use the arts or sciences to their advantage. 
       One of the most notable families that patronized the arts for their own needs were the Medici. The Medici were a banking family who rose to power and helped others such as the Pope rise to power  because of their interest in the arts. The Medici hired Brunelleschi to construct the Dome of the Florence Cathedral. They gained much fame for this act, and were well on their way to achieving their goals of attaining power. The Medici also had a hand in the Renaissance with their patronage of the arts and artists such as Michelangelo. Artists, sculptors, and architects gained fame and wealth because of the Medici family. 
       Many monarchs of the 16th through the 19th centuries saw the arts and sciences as a way to advance their cities and states. It was thought that if the arts and sciences could advance rapidly, then a city utilizing those arts and sciences could also advance rapidly. Medicine was being practiced more often because of the people's awareness of what cause sickness. The arts were accepted because people saw them as divine creations that could help them reach their bliss. Monarchs wanted their people to unite, and they tried to achieve this unity though the arts and sciences. 
       Not every monarch wanted to use the arts and sciences to their advantage. Some saw them as opponents, as different ways of thinking that would not be tolerated. The Bonfire of the Vanities was held so that artists would realize that the king did not accept their new ways of thinking about themselves. The ruler at the time felt as though the arts would have detrimental repercussions if they had not been stopped. Leonardo da Vinci also faced this problem while trying to advance the sciences. He found that people, especially powerful rulers, would not accept his views. A few rulers thought that for their kingdom to be a peaceful one, the arts and sciences should not be used. 
       The arts and sciences of the 16th through 18th centuries experienced a time of expansion. To many monarchs and powerful people, this meant that they could gain even more power and enhance their empires. To others, this expansion was seen as a burden and did not belong in their states. The arts and sciences helped some rulers gain more power and more followers, while they unsettled other monarchs. The arts and sciences were very influential in the European Renaissance.      
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 Analyze the various Protestant views of the relationship between church and state in
the period circa 1500–1700.
     
  The Protestant community wanted there to be a separation of church and state so that power struggles would not occur, the church would stay true to its goal of achieving spiritual enlightenment, and neither power could influence the other. 

Review for Exam

Galileo

Kepler- Improved the Dutch telescope. He studied alongside Galileo

Copernicus- Disagreed with Aristotle's view of geocentricism.

What three states/empires bordered the area between France and Russia? Holy Roman Empire, Ottoman Empire, and Poland.

The Polish government was a republic, but they elected a monarch. The monarch had limited authority and worked as the figurehead for the Polish nobility.
What is one problem with this type of government? It left a power vacuum. The power is spread out across all of the country instead of having it centralized. This left Poland vulnerable for attack.

Suleiman the Magnificent- The leader of the Ottoman Empire. He led them through most of the 16th century.

In the 17th century, the Turks will rise up and attack Vienna.

Hapsburg- Seated in Spain and controlled Austria. Everyone in this empire was Catholic.

Charles VI- Reined in the first half of the 18th century.

Pragmatic Sanction- said that the halves of the Hapsburg Empire were inseparable. The sanction was made so that Charles' daughter would get the throne.

Prussia- Border of Germany into Russia.

• Hohenzollern- Strongest family in Prussia
• Brandenburg- 
• Junkers 
• Estates
• Frederick William 
• Frederick- Son of Frederick William
• Frederick William I

Russian rulers

• Ivan the Terrible's reign isolated Russia from the rest of Europe.
• The Time of Troubles- Russia has no real ruler
• Michael Romanov- Began the Romanov dynasty that went all the way to the Russian Revolution 
• Peter the Great ruled from 1789 to 1825 and built the city of St. Petersburg

Exploration

• Prince Henry the Navigator from Portugal
• Bartholomew Diaz from Portugal 
• Vasco de Gama was the first to traverse the Cape of Good Hope and  found Brazil
• Treaty of Todesillas- 1493, split South America in two, and the Portuguese received Brazil. 

• Columbus
• de Balboa sailed the Isthmus of Panama
• Hernando Cortez fought the Aztecs in Mexico
• Pizarro found the Incas in Peru, he took smallpox with him and wiped the Incas out
• Magellan 
• Ponce de Leon was looking for the Fountain of Youth