Peer Review

Grade on a scale of 0-9.
8-9: Well developed thesis supported with credible historical information.
5-7: Partially developed thesis supported with some historical information
2-4: Confused and/or unfocused thesis
0-1: Essay lacks a thesis and demonstrates little to no understanding of the question

Free Response Practice #1

Why are the trials and tribulations of Galileo often considered both predicative of the future of Western Civilization as well as a perfect encapsulation of the context of his own time?


Galileo Galilee was the most revolutionary scientist of his time. His results changed the way people thought about the world they live in. Galileo's writings helped lead to the future of Western civilization. But he also faced many hardships along the way, which were predictable given his times. Galileo's findings in the areas of astronomy and motion helped modern science develop, but his relatively primitive instruments, his need to evade persecution, and the necessity to make his results easy to understand were setbacks to Galileo's genius. 


Galileo can be seen as the father of many branches of science, but most importantly in astronomy and motion. All of his findings were new to the people, and sparked the Scientific Revolution which, in turn, led to the future of Western science. Galileo one night noticed that the stars around Jupiter were not the same as they had been on other nights. He had discovered that Jupiter has many moons. Galileo accepted Copernicus's view of a heliocentric universe and rejected the geocentric theory. These results were both revolutionary, the latter much more than the former. His findings changed how people thought of themselves in relation to the universe and that led to many other scientists working together to try and discover why this was. Once people understood where they were, they could question why they were and these observations acted as the foundation for the future of western science.


It was not all easy going for the budding sciences, especially for Galileo. Galileo was, after all, living in the dawn of the Scientific Revolution and practically everything would be met with hardships. The major tribulation that hindered Galileo throughout his entire career was the lack of specialized instruments. Galileo's work with the stars was made difficult by the fact that he did not have a very powerful telescope. His results were made up of mostly assumed conjecture with extremely limited scientific proof. Galileo's scientific achievements had to be understandable to the common man, or all would be lost. The society and time in which he was living were major setbacks in Galileo's quest for the truth. It would not have been enough for Galileo to understand his findings, he needed to make it so that everyone could understand at least the basics of what he was trying to say. Galileo encountered many problems, but none were as great as attempting to start a revolution but make it known to the people  what science really meant. 


Trying to move ahead to the future while having to keep in mind the limits of one's own time proved to be near impossible for Galileo. Galileo found persecution awaiting him after almost every experiment that he conducted. His main source of trouble was found when he denounced the heliocentric view of the system and replaced it with geocentricism. The Church felt that the Earth had to be the center of the universe, lest all of their teachings be proven incorrect. Galileo had to keep this in mind searching for the correct truth, but discovered that the Church was wrong. He faced the Roman Inquisition because he had not paid heed to the context of his time. Similarly, Galileo disturbed many citizens when he rejected Aristotle's view on the elements; one which had stayed firm for centuries. Galileo presented many ideas that were considered blasphemy in his time, but which he knew would lead to the revolution in science. 


   

France from the Late 16th to the Early 18th Century

1598

• King Henry IV of France issued the Edict of Nantes
• Granted religious toleration to the French Huguenots 
• Established Henry IV as a politique
• The French tax system was problematic
• The nobility was exempt from paying taxes
• Sully is appointed to a position from where he can change the tax system
• He doesn't fix the problem completely, but he makes it so that the taxes are used for something. 
• The Nobility of the Robe saw an increase in the bottom-end of the middle class
• People could bribe their way into positions of power
• 1610 Henry IV died. 
• He was from the House of Bourbon, a prestigious house in France
• His son, Louis XIII is only nine years old
• Adults are appointed to lead the country for him- regents
• Cardinal Richelieu 1624-1642 was the unofficial ruler of France
• He put politics ahead of religion
• He wanted to get rid of the up-and-coming nobles
• He divided France into 32 segments, which were led by intendants chosen by Richelieu
• Middle-class people were chosen to be intendants
• Cardinal Richelieu wanted to suppress the Austrian Hapsburg
• He supported the Protestants in the Thirty Years Wars 
• Richelieu dies and Louis XIII dies shortly afterwards
• Louis XIV came to power as a child. 
• He is known as the Sun king
• Louis XIV has his own chief minister: Mazarin 
• No one wanted to overthrow the power of the king, but just limit it. Known as Lefrondes. 
• They caused Louis XIV to leave France and move to Versailles
• Bossuet was a French bishop and the man who theorized the Divine Rite of Kings. The principal architect of absolutism in the 17th century. 
• Louis XIV said, "I am the state!" He thought of himself as an ultimate ruler, given power by God. 
• Louis XIV increased the power of the intendants 
• The power of the nobility, in turn, decreased
• The nobility, if they wanted to get their power back, needed to prove their allegiance to the king. 
• Jean Baptiste Colbert was appointed to be the Minster of Finance
• He instituted the practice of mercantilism 
• France now had a major colony in the New World: Quebec 
• In 1685, France had a population of 19 million people, 1 million of which are Huguenots. 
• Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes   
• The French working class was full of Huguenots; 20,000 of them left France 

Cromwell

Restoration England- Restore the Stuart line after Cromwell

• Charles I has been executed. 
• Cromwell comes to power
• Charles II is exiled 
• Cromwell sought God's destiny for himself and his people
• As Cromwell was beginning to get on his feet, a misfortune occurred. 
• His vanities were stripped away and he became more religious. 
• Cromwell, sensing that God had a purpose for him, reformed his own life. 
• Cromwell wanted to take power from the Papacy. 
• Charles's execution was supposed to be a sacrifice
• The Levelers wanted to level the field for all classes of people. 
• They stood against Cromwell
• The Leveler men were held captive for their protests and treason
• Leveler women grouped together to help their husbands 
• The women wanted to be seen as regular people in society, and were very revolutionary. 
• Cromwell ordered the murder of Irish soldiers even after they had surrendered. 
• Cromwell thought Ireland as a pitiful colony and was "trying to pacify it."
• Charles II ran away after a battle until he could be smuggled out of the country. 
• When Cromwell returned to London, he was an English Caesar. 
• Cromwell made Great Britain a Republic. 
• Parliament and Cromwell were against each other, Cromwell accused Parliament of being unjust. 
• He called in the musketeers and Parliament was shut down
• Cromwell was striking out against the Commonwealth
• Power would have almost been given to Cromwell, but he refused, claiming that he was working for God. 
• England was being put back together by returning to its original ways. 
• The major generals were employed by Cromwell to shut down everything happening in his country. 
• Jews were given allowance to pray in peace, because Cromwell allowed it to be. 
• Cromwell was told that converting the Jews would lead to the Apocalypse, but he knew that it would only bring about religious change. 
•  September 3, 1658 Cromwell died while a storm was raging over his country. 
• It was said that the devil was coming for his soul. 
• Great Britain was left as a place where anyone could receive the Lord in his own way, without disturbing anyone else. 
• With the Lord Protector gone, it was realized that Cromwell needed a successor. 
• Charles II made himself the king.  
• 23 April 1661, Charles II was crowned king. 
• People were hanged, drawn, and quartered as a ritualistic form of torture. 
• January 30 1661, the remains of Cromwell were dragged out of his tomb and tortured
• The "Cromwellians" worried that the new ruling power would not be good for them.
• A comet appeared in the sky over England and the English thought it to be an omen.
• The next year thousands were killed by the plague and the bodies were piled into deep pits. 
• During the plague during the reign of Charles II 1 out of every 6 Londoners died. 
• Fires leaped up and engulfed many houses, possibly because of the overcrowded conditions of London. 

Grade on Test

88

Remember People, This is Golf: Lowest Score Wins

48. ?

49. Christopher Columbus 

50. Columbian Exchange 

51. Maize 

52. Mercantilism 

53. Joint Stock Company 

54. Puritanism 

55. False 

56. London

57. Dutch Trade

58. No

59. El Greco 

60. Middle-class 

61. Commons

62. Anglicans 

63. Stuarts 

64. Presbyterian 

65, 1603- 1625

66. Divine Rite of Kings 

67. Catholic

68. ?

69. Laud

70. France

71. Royalists

72. Roundheads   

73. Oliver Cromwell 

74. Absolutism 

75. Protector of England 

76. Common Brother and Sisterhood 

77. James 

78. Classical 

79. Hobbes

I am going to cry

1. Martin Luther 
2. 95 Theses
3. ?
4. The Dome 
5. Halloween of ? Freebie 
6. Faith alone 
7. The Bible
8. Papal Hierarchy 
9. Their owners 
10. False
11. German peasantry 
12. Protestantism
13. Calvinism 
14. Treaty of Augsburg 
15. Luther claimed that salvation can be achieved by faith alone.  
16. Luther said that all jobs have equal merit. 
17. John Calvin 
18. Geneva, Switzerland 
19. Freebie
20. Huguenots 
21. King Henry VIII
22. Mary I
23. Anabaptists 
24. Pope Julius II
25. Council of  Trent  
26. False   
27. New Revised Standard
28. Loyola
29. To convert the New World to their religion . 
30. 16th 
31. Raphael  
32. Ferdinand II 
33. Spanish Armada 
34. St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre  
35. Edict of Common Brotherhood
36. 300
37. Treaty of Augsburg 
38. Protestant Union 
39. Catholic League
40. Catholic
41. Protestant 
42. Charles V and James VI
43. Wallenstein
44. Treaty of Westphalia 
45. Augsburg   
46. Germany 
47. France
48.