Medicine Outline

Thesis:  The reason that medical theory in the Scientific Revolution advanced rapidly was because it broke away from its ancient roots of keeping health levels balanced and became more focused on the prevention and curing of diseases.


Definitions: 
       Galen: Greek physician,anatomist, and physiologist. He codified existing medical knowledge and his authority continued until the Renaissance
       Aristotelianism: The philosophy of Aristotle that deals with logic and metaphysics and ethics and poetics and politics and natural science; "Aristotelianism profoundly influenced Western thought"
       Cauterization: burn the skin or flesh of (a wound ) with a heated instrument or caustic substance, typically to stop bleeding or prevent the wound from becoming infected.
       Humours: each of the four chief fluids of the body (blood, phlegm, yellow bile [choler], and black bile [melancholy]) that were thought to determine a person's physical and mental qualities by the relative proportions in which they were present.
       Will have to add definitions of certain diseases, specialized equipment, and techniques as needed. 


Sources:
       Modern History Sourcebook will provide many primary sources
       Paintings and journal entries of patients and doctors will also be used as primary sources. 
       Dictionaries (Oxford and American Heritage) will be used for definitions 
       Secondary sources such as Suite101, Wikisites and Sparknotes will be used until primary sources with more reliable information are found.   


Body Paragraphs


I. Galenic methods and practices were becoming obsolete, and new ideas were being ushered in
       A. He had thought that a true physician was also a philosopher and this influenced his thoughts
       B. Galenic practices were comparable to Aristotle's natural philosophy
              1. Analyzed the body in terms of air, earth, water, and fire
       C. In the Scientific Revolution, cures for sicknesses were being found, rather than maintaining balance. 


II. Syphilis, thought to be a new disease, caused a new branch of science to develop
       A. A cure for syphilis had to be found, as the ancients seemed to have no information on it. 
       B. The traditional methods and medicine did little to syphilis. 


III. The New World directly influenced medicine
       A. Syphilis was thought to be brought from the New World, as were many other diseases. 
       B. Plants with medicinal properties were said to be native to the New World
              1. These plants could be used by physician- ground up and used as virtually anything


 IV. Paracelsus advocated for the use of chemicals in medicine
       A. His views were that everything relied on the harmony of man
              1. Each planet corresponded to a metal, which corresponded to a part of the body
       B. Sickness were caused by chemical reactions and could be cured with the same basic principles. 


V. Sterilization
       A. It was not known exactly what infections could be contracted when dirty instruments were used on the human body, but it was not an accepted practices
       B. The main method of sterilization was cauterization- burning the blood vessels shut
       
VI. The heart and its importance
       A. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1628harvey-blood.html


VII. Vesalius and anatomy 
       A. Considered himself a scientific "progressive"
       B. Worked mainly with cadavers to discover the secrets of the human body


VIII. Conclusion
      The ideas of many men in the Scientific Revolution shaped traditional medicine. They renounced most of the old views of ancient medical figures. Great advances in medicine were made in the Scientific Revolution.   
                 




       

Liberlism

• Progress is the goal of a society

England

• There were elections in 1830
• They weakened the conservation control in the house of Congress
• Parliament was split into the House of Commons and the House of Lords
• In the House of Commons there were wealthy people from the middle class
• Th election was the first time that the House of Commons won the election
• The House of Lords is scared by this
• They do not want to have to deal with the liberals in the House of Commons
• King William threatened to make some people in the House of Commons Lords in the House of Lords 
• The Reform Bill of 1832
• Doubled the number of eligible voters in England 
• In 1845 the Potato Famine hit
• Robert Peel pushed for reform because he thought that if a reform was not made between the rich and the poor in England, revolution would break loose. 
• The Corn Laws were repealed 
• Because of this, he lost his seat as Prime Minister
• Between 1848 and 1851, as a result of the potato famine many Irish decided to leave Ireland and emigrate to the United States. 
• The Chartist movement tried to feed off of the anxiety over reform
• The Charters wanted a national charter that would result in universal human suffrage
• Everyone would have the right to vote 

France

• Charles X was in a bad position
• He dissolved his government and called new elections 
• The liberals won the election, which Charles did not like
• Charles X was forced to abdicate the throne 
• Louis Phillipe became the new monarch
• His reign was known as the July Monarchy 
• He was the Duke of Orleans: The Orleanist 
• During his reign, he tried to deal with the cares and anxieties of the people
• He brought out the tri-color flag as the official flag of France
• The Bourgeois was the upper-middle class of France
• They are the people that Louis will try and cater to
• He can claim that he is helping the middle class, while he is really helping people who are pretty well off 
• The liberals and the reformers did not like this because they thought that the government was not doing the right thing
• 1848- There were a number of revolutions 

Conservatism in Europe

1815-1848

• The Congress of Vienna met to settle questions over properties left in the wake of Napoleon
• Representatives
• France- Talleyrand 
• England- Castlereagh 
• Austria- Metternich 
• Russia- Czar Alexander
• All of those men discuss what is going to happen after Napoleon left
• Russia refused to discuss the situation in Turkey and the Balkan states
• England refused to talk about their international sea trade and the colonies
• Geopolitical implications followed
• A system of strong states around France was discussed
• Austria Netherlands were transferred to the Dutch 
• The Dutch Republic changed its name
• It became, along with other places, the Kingdom of the Netherlands
• It is ruled by the House of Orange 
• There was no attempt to restore the Holy Roman Empire
• No one bothered to pay attention to the needs of the German Nationalists
• Another new Kingdom was created
• The Kingdom of Poland known as Congress Poland 
• Louis XVIII returns as a constitutional monarch
• Napoleon was banned from having any rule in France 
•  Czar Alexander insisted on a document known as the Holy Alliance 
• It said that the rule over Eastern Europe was divinely granted
• Alexander and Prussia signed on
• England refused to accept the document 
• Castlereagh called the document "sublime mysticism and nonsense
• The powers agreed that they would continue to meet to discuss concerns
• France, Britain, Austria, Russia- Concert of Europe 
• Aix-lachapelle 

• Britain became less concerned with the happenings of continental Europe 
• 1819- The French and the Russians met again in Galatia. Alexander and Metternich composed a new alliance called the Protocol of Troppau  
• 1821- Greece had been occupied by the Ottoman Turks had swept in through the Aegean Sea and overcame Greece. There was war between the Greeks and the Turks 
• With the Greeks revolting, the situation created a dilemma for the major powers of Europe 

Conservatism in Russia

• Alexander died in 1825
• He had connections between the Russian orthodox and the Greek Orthodox Church. 
• Secret police forces were on the rise in Russia and Austria 
• The reasons that freedoms were not made in Russia was because Constantine favored his brother, Nicholas, as czar.
• After Nicholas becomes czar, there is a short-lived revolutionary movement 
• Nicholas became more conservative and authoritarian than Alexander had ever been
• Russia becomes more closed off from the rest of Europe

France

• When Napoleon abdicated the throne, Talleyrand opted for another constitutional monarch
• Louis XVIII, as constitutional monarch, is a calm voice in French politics. But he is very old
• He signed The Charter which promised a new form of legislature that would be more democratic. 
• The problem was that the  vote hindered upon the fact that the citizen was a landowner 
• Major parts of the Napoleonic code, and Catholicism being the state religion were still intact
• The White Terror- Emigres returned to France under Napoleon. In 1815 they exacted their revenge on former revolutionaries.   
• Louis XVIII died in 1824 and his successor is Charles X. 
• A change took place in conservatism in France
• Charles tried to reform the measures by which the middle class would be compensated 
• He disenfranchised the middle class
• There is opposition to Charles X

Germany

• Germany was not asked what they thought of all of the political changes
• They get a sense of nationalism 
• This nationalism came out in the middle class, the universities, and the businesses. It is a sense that they have been wronged. 
• Decisions were made that affected former alliances of the Holy Roman Empire and Germany was not even included in the decision making
•  The secret police that was popular in Russia was established in Germany

England

• England has to deal with its growing empire
• It has holdings in many places. "The sun never sets on the British Empire" 
• Corn and grain were subjects of controversy
• Tariffs were redefined in the Corn Laws
• There were no labor laws 
• In Manchester, people had enough of their terrible lives
• Over 80,000 people took to the streets
• The crowd was made up of peaceful protesters
• They were protesting the rights of all men to vote
• The local forces fired on the crowd. 
• 11 are kill, 400 are injured
• The British government thanked the soldiers for doing a good job
• This was known as the Peterloo Massacre 
• Parliament was a farce
• It had nothing to do with the representation of the English community
• It became a tool of the rich and the powerful, and of the industrialists
• Reform laws are broken and shut down 

Austria 

• Continues to influence Germany
• Metternich ruled out of Vienna, influence a lot of non-Austrians, and completely ignored the locals in thirty years. 

Research Paper Thesis

The art of medicine in the Scientific Revolution advanced rapidly by breaking away from its Galenic roots, which  had foundations in the Aristotelean practices of keeping the body's health levels balanced, and becoming more focused on the prevention and curing of diseases.

Industrial Revolution

Industrial Revolution

• 1760- 1850
• Changed labor from farm to factory, from manual to mechanized
• People were able to increase their supplies of food and raw materials
• New technologies result in increased production, efficiency, consumerism, etc. 
• The economy of cloth increased during this time. 
• The trade between colony, homeland, and back to the colony was part of a system of industrialization. 
• Competition economically arose and eventually created capitalism
• Other advances included sturdier farm implements created mechanically
• The growth of the population rose
• Workers on farms moved to factories so that their farms could be sustained
• England prepared for the expansion of its economy and industry
•  The first threading device- the jenny was developed in England
• One operator could spin multiple threads at the same time
• This process used to take dozens of people
• In 20 years, nearly 20,000 spinning jennies were being used in England
• There are no rules governing workers' rights 
• There are no limits for working hours
• There are no safety laws
• Children can be made to work full days in factories 
• The working conditions for coal miner were nearly suicidal 
• The only people who became coal miners with those who had to 
• The Fireman crawled down a tunnel with a long stick with a candle on the end of it. Their goal was to find out if there were an noxious gases down in the mine. 
• The coal industry expanded upon itself
• In the early 18th century pig iron was developed
• Canals were constructed for easier trade
• The canal system and the railroad system changed everything in terms of trade
• 1804-1820 there are semi-successful attempts to create working rail cars
• George Stevenson created the first public rail cars designed to move passengers around
• This was too expensive and it dies. But the idea of transporting humans sticks. 
• Trade and distribution in between cities advance
• Thing became more cosmopolitan- world cities began to develop
• The steam engine- Heat converted the potential energy in water to the kinetic energy in steam
• Less people died because healthcare became more important, more babies were born and survived infancy, plague was eliminated in Europe, and food production increased
• Craftsmen and apprentices 
• The size of the middle class increased
• The factory system put the owners of the factories in a position of power over their employees 

Capital and Labor

• Capital is the amount of money that one can put into a job
• In a factory condition, more can be done with less workers and the profits increase
• These profits can be used as capital for future investments 

Topic for Term Paper

Advances in Medicine during the Scientific Revolution

Remembrance of the French Revolution

After learning about the French Revolution, it can be seen just how much change can take place in a relatively short amount of time and with such little cause. The Revolution was brought about mainly by the Third Estate in France. They were unhappy with their positions in French society. Their uprising caused the revolution to flare out across France. Their unrest caused the king to be taken out of power, and the French government changed drastically. Even though most of the things instituted during the Revolution did not remain in place, the French Revolution was a very important time in history.  

Napoleon and Napoleonic Wars

Napoleon 

• By the end of the revolution, Napoleon began to rise up through the ranks. 
• He will become the king of France
• Napoleon became First Console
• He was part of a triumvirate-  rule by three 
• The console was established to ensure democracy in France, but Napoleon twisted it and became a dictator. 
• A new constitution was approved
• The people of France chose a new senate
• This senate had very little power in the constitution
• This allowed Napoleon to get more power
• In exchange for this unbalanced power, he promised peace for the French people
• The English and the Dutch did not like the French
• Napoleon made a peace deal with England 
• The emigrates- nobles against the revolution- were offered amnesty to come back to France
• There was an opposition
• Napoleon created a secret police force to suppress the media
• Napoleon set up the Organic Articles to the Concordat 
• He can elect officials, decide what goes on in the Church, and can force clergy to read state documents. 
• Napoleon kept that there would be no titles
• The Napoleonic Code- an overhaul of the French legal system- was established
• Citizens were declared equal under law
• Freedom of religion was guaranteed
• Labor unions were outlawed
• Women lost the legal gains they had made during the revolution
• Men gained all control over property
• A woman had no rights to her earnings
• One's status was defined by their wealth
• It was possible for citizens to move up in the hierarchy
• 1802- Napoleon was named console for life
• He had the power to choose his own successor
• He had the power to mend the constitution
• With these powers, he had himself coronated as the Emperor of France 

Napoleonic Wars

• Wanting to expand his empire, Napoleon went to war
• He sold the Louisiana territory for next to nothing to be rid of the slave problem
• Napoleon decides to fight against England- a naval war 
• In 1805 the English and French fight at Trafalgar 
• Poland is set up as the Grand Duchee of Warsaw
• After two years of defeating Russian armies, .................
• Napoleon took territory to the east and then thought about taking his expansions to the west
• He couldn't get to England without a navy
• He established the Continental System
• If you are an ally of France, you must boycott English goods 
• Napoleon convinced the Spanish monarch to leave the throne 
• He puts his own brother, Joseph, on the throne of Spain
• He supports the new king of Spain
• Massive guerrilla war broke out 

• The French Empire has holdings in Germany, Poland, and Spain. He is demolishing the British and has a stronghold on trade. 
• Outside of France, Napoleon is hated. 
• Russia allied with Britain in 1810
• Napoleon does not approve of this
• He sent an invasion army to attack Russia- 700, 000 troops were sent 
• The Russians use Scorched Earth policy
• They burn down their town and the surrounding fields
• As the French keeps approached, the Russians keep burning their own towns and fields
• The city of Moscow is abandoned and burned
• Napoleon sort of won the battle but then blizzard struck
• A substantial part of Napoleon's army perished because of the weather
• Napoleon went back to France
• The Russians feel that they are on top
• Russia, Prussia, Austria, and England sign into the quadruple alliance 
• Napoleon is exiled
• Louis XVIII is brought in and installed as the constitutional monarch 
• The leader of the quadruple alliance meet with Talleyrand  
• Napoleon escaped from Alba and raised a new army of his own 
• "The 100 Days Battle Through Europe"
• He met the British at Waterloo, Belgium 
• Napoleon is captured and sent into British custody
• He died in 1821

Effects

• Alliances formed during this period carry on, up until WWII

Revolts Past and Present

1. Similarities and Differences between Louis XVI and Mubarak


       Similarities
              Both men were accepted by their respective countries when they first stepped into office, but due to      their unorthodox views on political subjects they were soon all but thrown out of power.
              Louis XVI became king of France after his grandfather, Louis XV, died. Mubarak became the president of Egypt, previously being the vice president, after President Anwar El Sadat was assassinated.
              The majority of the citizens within the countries wanted to see both men removed from positions, though they were for different reasons. Riots were held, and both revolts ended with the leader stepping down.

       Differences
              Mubarak ruled Egypt for 30 years, beginning in 1981 and ending in 2011. Louis XVI ruled France from 1774 to 1791- 17 years.
              The revolt to push Mubarak out of office lasted for 18 days. The French Revolution lasted for 10 years, and even though removing Louis XVI from power was not a primary goal, it was an effect.
              Mubarak retired to Cairo in a vacation spot, and for the most part, he peacefully handed power over to his successor. Louis XVI was brutally beheaded after being accused of treason.
              Both men had tried to become the complete ruler of their respective country, Mubarak with his pseudo-dictatorship and Louis with his absolute monarchy.
            
2. Reasons behind the protests

       Egypt
              The protesters in Egypt poverty, unemployment, corruption, and the dictatorship of their president of thirty years to step down. The Egyptians wanted the quality of life in their country to improve drastically. The success rate of their protests would increase drastically, they thought, if Mubarak was no longer their president. The revolution in Tunisia seemed to travel to Egypt with rapidity. Protesters in Egypt were asking for many different things, but most of them can be put under the category of human rights.
http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/international/countriesandterritories/egypt/index.html?scp=1-spot&sq=Egypt&st=cse
http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2011/01/201112515334871490.html

       France
              The French Revolution was brought about by the Third Estate, who called themselves the National Assembly. They were the largest of the three estates in France, yet had the least rights and suffered the highest taxes. Pamphlets were written that were brash enough to say that France could function without the Third Estate. This inspired the French people to rise up and demand equal rights as the clergy and nobility. France was also bankrupt because of Louis XVI. The people of French felt that a new ruler was in order.
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1789platiere.html
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/sieyes.html

3. The role of women


       Egypt
              There were many women activists who were actively protesting out on the streets or playing major roles in the revolution as a whole. The younger women were using social media to spread their ideas and promote change. Womens rights groups were established in Egypt. Women were telling other women, through word of mouth and social networking sites, how to behave when they revolt to help them out and proceed with the revolt. Women had been sexually assaulted by government people, and this is one of the reasons why women revolted in the first place. In Egypt, most women played as big of parts in the revolution as many men. They were all just humans working towards a common goal.

       France 
              The French Revolution was just the start of women entering into politics. It was still banned for them to have an education, for instance, and women and others wanted this to change. Rousseau wrote a book that promoted the suppression of women in terms of governmental influence. Many women disagreed and actively revolted against the publication. Olympe de Gouges was one such instance of a woman who despised how her gender was being treated. She published a pamphlet named The Declaration of the Rights of Women. Females would soon became key factors in France and the rest of the world. While their rights did not improve drastically overnight, improvements were seen.

4. What happens next?
      
       The protesters in Egypt received their main reason for uprising: Mubarak handed power off to Vice President Omar Suleiman. There are still protests going on to keep the momentum going, and for all citizens of Egypt to receive, as stated in our constitution, certain unalienable rights. Others fear, though, that even with Mubarak out of power, things will not get better. It was not only Mubarak who was the problem. Government officials and police officers suppressed people all over the country. Perhaps Suleiman will find himself in the same position as Mubarak and not be able to do anything about it. In France, even though the monarchy with Louis XVI ended, it did not end monarchical rule in France completely. Nothing much changed in France to stay following the revolution, and if history does repeat itself, Egypt is not at peace.

5. Expression of views

       Egypt
              People marched on Tahrir Square to express their opinions on the government. Many of the citizens of Egypt utilized social networking sites, namely Twitter, to communicate with other people in Egypt and the outside world. For 18 days, people congregated in Tahrir Square in Cairo to express their views and play their small part in the Egyptian Revolution.

       France
              The French population's main method of communication were pamphlets and letters, the ancestors of social networking. These works were passed out to anyone who was willing to take them. The views expressed in the documents help to stir up debate, and continue on with the revolution. People marched and protested ultimately resulting in the Terror.

6. Violent protests


       In Egypt currently, the protests have died down, and for the most part are no longer violent. That is not to say that they were not violent at the beginning. The "Day of Rage" began on January 25 of this year. The protests had been peaceful up until this point, but then the police and protesters fought in the streets. Tear gas and water hoses were aimed that the participants to try and subdue them. For days, violent protests continued, with hundreds of people being arrested. The deaths did not number nearly as many as the Terror, but the threat is still there. The problem is happening right now, and anything could happening.

7. Real peoples' views


       Even though my personal tweets were never answered, I have seen some answers that others in the class asked and received, and I have been updating myself with the Twitter feed of Egypt. Most people on Twitter are satisfied with the outcome of the protests. For the most part, people are saying that protests are still going on, but for different reasons than they had been. There has been non stop partying, but now that the week is about to begin anew, people said that work has to start sometime. There are still a few people worried about how the Egyptian military will behave for the following weeks, but for the most part they believe that things have finally calmed down.

8. Outcome


       The revolts that occurred in Egypt will have a more lasting effect than they did in France in the 18th century. The revolts in France did not last, but times have changed. There are more ways to express opinions. As soon as people catch wind of Egypt trying to reinstall a dictatorship, it will be quenched. Unlike in France, where Robespierre gained as much power as Louis XVI had, Egypt will remain relatively peaceful. In the long term, France found stability, even though  many other wars and revolts had to before it became what it is. But Egypt is different. In the long term, it is possibly that a new world superpower could rise from the ashes. In these times, absolutely anything is possible.

Check this out: http://www.fastcompany.com/1721846/anonymous-goes-old-school-attacks-egypt-with-faxes I'm sure you have some interesting views on this.
              

Kaplan Unit 3

16/20
I did read the chapters before taking the exam.

The French Revolution and the Terror DBQ

Discuss the advantages and the disadvantages of the Terror as an instrument of the French Revolution


      In 1793, the event known as the Terror began in Europe. The Jacobins political party in France allied with another party, the Mountain, to try and revolt against the Gerodins. During this time thousands of people were killed on many different accounts, ranging from conspiracy to revolting against the state. Reforms were made by the Commission of Public Safety to attempt to combat the crises that the Terror had caused. The Terror was essential to the French Revolution because it brought about much change all across France, especially in the peasantry, and had lasting effects but it also hindered France's ability to continue on with the revolution because there was so much bloodshed and deceit within France.

       The Terror was like the spark that started the French Revolution. It prompted much change to go about in Europe to cope with all of the revolutionary views. Robespierre said, "…because [the government] is compelled to deploy, swiftly and incessantly, new resources to meet new and pressing dangers" (Doc. 7). He says that the government is constantly changing, and the Terror made it change rapidly, which was the original intention of the Jacobins. The peasantry of France was effected the most by the Terror. It was written in a report: "If they were nobles or rich people it would not be strange, their being counterrevolutionists, but in that class we should expect all to be patriots" (Doc. 12). The people of France had their places in society, and they were expected to view the world in the same was as other members of their class. The Terror makes this untrue, as peasants, instead of going along with the Terror, are becoming counter-revolutionists.

       The Terror was an effective method used to make the French Revolution stronger because the reforms that were laid down at the time were not abolished. Ronsin said " It is necessary that the flames from their devastated dens proclaim tar and wide the punishment that is destined for those who try to imitate them" (Doc. 5). The revolutionary army was laying waste to everything that was against reform. These events left imprints on people's minds, and they knew that the Terror was not something to oppose for a long while afterwards. William Pitt provides a counterargument for the stay of the Terror's doings: "what can be the dependence on the steadiness of their operations, or what rational prospect can there be of the permanence of their exertions?" (Doc. 8). Since the people of the Terror had mostly been acting out of fear on both sides, once people calm down, everything will return to normality once again.

       The Terror was not useful in helping the French Revolution because it caused too many deaths, and caused too many parts of France to turn against each other. The public's actions are brought into question about how they deal with getting rid of people against the revolution: "That they acquit the innocent and punish the guilty, although murmurs are heard among the public at their judgments” (Doc. 9). Innocent people had been killed, and it would be impossible to keep the Revolution going if everyone who had been for it had been killed off. Document 10 says, "Bitter complaints already expressed numberless times, were repeated today of the arrest and imprisonment of citizens who are good patriots and are victims of ambition." Not everyone who was killed during the Terror was against revolution. This it not the way to bring about change. Also, "What a pity that a people [the French] capable of such Incredible energy, should he guilty or rather be governed by those who are guilty of such unheard of crimes and cruelties" (Doc. 4). France had been driven to turmoil, and it became impossible to bring about revolution.

       In some ways, the Terror did bring about the revolutionary ideas that the Jacobin had wanted in the first place. In other ways, though, it did nothing to France as a whole. Even though deaths had occurred, people had only been scared into succumbing to the powers of the Terror. It was not an effective method for the French Revolution.

Optimism and Pessimism in Candide Redux

Thesis: Martin's pessimism, or realism, is preferred over Pangloss's optimism because Martin's thoughts allow more room for interpretation, and exhibit more of an enlightened mind. 

I. Martin's realism provides more room for interpretation, and does not have to fall back on the same old reasonings.

       A. Pangloss always says that everything is for the best, but this is not true, especially for Candide.       Candide begins to think the same ways that Pangloss does, but soon finds that this is not for the best.  

              1. At the end of Chapter III, Candide praised Pangloss for his views that everything works out for the best. He had been blessed with good fortune after escaping from the Bulgarians. Candide then saw a beggar who was diseased and dying. This is Voltaire's argument against Pangloss's ideas.

              2. In Chapter VI Pangloss is hanged for "speaking his mind." Even as he is walking to the gallows, Pangloss is still optimistic. This is when Candide first began to doubt his master, "If this is the best of possible worlds, what then are the others?"

        B. Martin is not always pessimistic in his views, rather he sees aspects of life as not always the best that could have happened.

              1. When the ship of the thief sank, Pangloss rejoiced, exclaiming that, "Crime is sometimes punished."

              2.  Martin saw the situation as a poor one. He questioned why "should the passengers be doomed also to destruction?" It is this reasoning that makes Martin's point of view more enlightened.

II. With Martin's outlook of life, one can find happiness faster than with Pangloss's method.

       A. Martin showed that even though things do not always happen in the best possible way they could, everything works itself out in the end.

              1. One of the few instances in which having misfortune turn into fortune occurred in Chapter XXVI. There was a poor king who needed money. Candide and the kings helped out their friend. By being in a bad position, this man was helped.

              2. Right after that event, Candide saw " four Serene Highnesses, who had also been stripped of their territories by the fortune of war" but does not help them. This gives reason for Martin's pessimism.

       B. By Pangloss's views, God wants to watch Candide suffer so that in the end he can be a little bit happier than he had been in the first place.

              1. In the final chapter of the book, Pangloss tells Candide all he did and what it all amounted to: "preserved citrons and pistachio-nuts." Pangloss seemed optimistic about this, but it was a disheartening truth that made Candid'es journey seem like a horrible joke.

              2. While Martin's judgments may be harsh, they tell it like it is. In Chapter XXI, he said that the world was created "To plague us to death." Even though that is not a nice statement, it can be applied to Candide's life. 

III. Voltaire used Pangloss to represent Leibniz and his ideas, and presented Martin as a static opposite for Pangloss. Martin is Voltaire's opinions of what the best outlook on life is.

       A. At the dawn of the Enlightenment, many new ways of thinking about the world were created. Leibniz thought of the "everything is for the best" mindset, which Voltaire did not agree with.

              1. Voltaire uses satire to show how wrong he though Leibniz was. The slave in Chapter XIX is Voltaire showing people a horrible situation and seeing if they will still say that the world is the best.

       B. Martin was Voltaire's presentation of what is the "right" way of thinking, or at least more right than what Leibniz had been proposing.

              1. In the chapter where Martin is introduced, XX, he provides several counterarguments that prove that the world is not the bets of all possible worlds. "Even in those cities which seem to enjoy peace, and

where the arts flourish, the inhabitants are devoured by more envy, care, and uneasiness than are experienced by a besieged town." Unhappiness exists everywhere.

    

February 9

French Revolution

• The Gerodins and the Jacobins were the two parties of France
• They gain power and become a bit tyrannical 
• Another party starts to develop, a party that listens to the people on the street, the Mountain. 
• 1793- Louis XVI is found to be secretly talking with the King of Austria
• He is charged with treason and executed
• Robespierre is elected as the representative of the Mountain party
• The working class thinks that they have found a hero, someone who has been through the same turmoils that they have
• The Committee of Public Safety is established
• Their aim was to protect France
• Laws were created that negated the rights of the accused
• Women were banned from gathering 
• The Terror starts in 1793 and goes until 1794
• During this time the convention and the CPS decide that the Mountain and Jacobin will unite against the emigrates, the nobles, and the Gerodins.
• 18, 000 to 40,000 people were killed including Marie Antoinette and Olympe de Gouge   
• July 1794- Conservatives and radicals turn against Robespierre
• A new group rises up- the Thermodorians 
• They wrote a third French constitution which goes into effect in 1795
• Electors chose the new national legislature
• The lower house of legislation was called the 500, the upper house was called the Elders. 
• The executive branch was made out of five people
• There was unrest among the people over the subject of a new government
• A young commander was put in the position of calming people's nerves. 
• Napoleon married a widow named Josephine who had ties to the Directory
• With her help, Napoleon goes to Italy and drives out the Habsburgs. 
• The Cisalpine government wants Napoleon to come back and want to make a deal with Austria. 
• Napoleon refused, and kept all of the possessions he had taken from Austria
• France has an election in 1797, however the candidates leading the election were favoring the royalists and the return of the exiled Louis XVIII. 
• Napoleon sends a force against the royalists in the French government. 
• He leaves 3 of the 5, Napoleon got rid of 2 of them

Feb. 8

Estates

• The estates general was called together for a meeting in 1789. 
• The first and second states would not meet with the third estate
• This battle went on for six weeks, during which parish priests from the first state split and go to the third state. 
• They call their own national assembly, saying that they are the true representative of the French people. 
• The first and second estates locked the third estate out of the meeting. 
• June 20, 1789- The national assembly moved to an indoor tennis court to meet. They swore to continue to meet there as the national assembly, driving a wedge between the clergy and nobility and the others. 
• They vowed to do this until a new constitution was written for France. 
• The king dismissed the third estate from the meetings of the state general. 
• Bread prices become inflated because there had been a bad harvest
• The price of bread became too high and unavailable. This was bad because it was a staple in the French diet. 
• July 14, 1789- A mob attacked the Bastille
• Nobles began to fear for their lives. The Count of Artois became the leader of the emigrates.     
• The citizens committee is constructed 
• Lafayette is put in charge of the National Guard
• August, 1789- The assembly completed  the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens  
• Basic Human Rights: Liberty, Property, Security, Resistance to oppression, Freedom of religion, Due process of law, Taxes by common consent
• Women were revolutionaries.
• Olympe de Gouge wrote The Rights of Women 
• Argued for a woman's right to education, her ability to own property within a marriage, and the right to initiate divorce
• October, 1789- Everything is culminating
• 100, 000 people, most of them women, march on Versailles. They have two demands:
• Bread, and that the royal family returns to Paris     
• The king submitted to the requests, including:
• He lost veto power over anything coming out of the assembly
• He was granted suspending power, meaning that he could hold up legislation but gave up his absolute right to make law. 
• Slavery was abolished 
• No one is left to collect taxes. 
• Louis XVI is left to seize property from the church
• Paper money was issued
• Property was sold
• Inflation increases drastically
• The king sells anything he can find, just to get money
• The church in France couldn't support itself
• 1791- The Royal Family attempted to flee, but they are not able to do so
• Influential critics of the government begin to rally for a republic
• Danton and Marat 
• The new form of government was a constitutional monarchy with one legislative branch. 
• The Declaration of Pillnitz 
• Leopold said that if necessary he would use military order to restore the government in Paris. 

Optimism and Pessimism in Candide

Thesis: Martin's pessimism, or realism, is preferred over Pangloss's optimism because Martin's thoughts allow more room for interpretation, and exhibit more of an enlightened mind. 

I. Martin's realism provides more room for interpretation, and does not have to fall back on the same old reasonings.

       A. Pangloss always says that everything is for the best, but this is not true, especially for Candide.       Candide begins to think the same ways that Pangloss does, but soon finds that this is not for the best.  

              1. At the end of Chapter III, Candide praised Pangloss for his views that everything works out for the best. He had been blessed with good fortune after escaping from the Bulgarians. Candide then saw a beggar who was diseased and dying. This is Voltaire's argument against Pangloss's ideas.

              2. In Chapter VI Pangloss is hanged for "speaking his mind." Even as he is walking to the gallows, Pangloss is still optimistic. This is when Candide first began to doubt his master, "If this is the best of possible worlds, what then are the others?"

        B. Martin is not always pessimistic in his views, rather he sees aspects of life as not always the best that could have happened.

              1. When the ship of the thief sank, Pangloss rejoiced, exclaiming that, "Crime is sometimes punished."

              2.  Martin saw the situation as a poor one. He questioned why "should the passengers be doomed also to destruction?" It is this reasoning that makes Martin's point of view more enlightened.

II. With Martin's outlook of life, one can find happiness faster than with Pangloss's method.

       A. Martin showed that even though things do not always happen in the best possible way they could, everything works itself out in the end.

              1. One of the few instances in which having misfortune turn into fortune occurred in Chapter XXVI. There was a poor king who needed money. Candide and the kings helped out their friend. By being in a bad position, this man was helped.

              2. Right after that event, Candide saw " four Serene Highnesses, who had also been stripped of their territories by the fortune of war" but does not help them. This gives reason for Martin's pessimism.

       B. By Pangloss's views, God wants to watch Candide suffer so that in the end he can be a little bit happier than he had been in the first place.

              1. In the final chapter of the book, Pangloss tells Candide all he did and what it all amounted to: "preserved citrons and pistachio-nuts." Pangloss seemed optimistic about this, but it was a disheartening truth that made Candid'es journey seem like a horrible joke.

              2. While Martin's judgments may be harsh, they tell it like it is. In Chapter XXI, he said that the world was created "To plague us to death." Even though that is not a nice statement, it can be applied to Candide's life. 

III. Voltaire used Pangloss to represent Leibniz and his ideas, and presented Martin as a static opposite for Pangloss. Martin is Voltaire's opinions of what the best outlook on life is.

       A. At the dawn of the Enlightenment, many new ways of thinking about the world were created. Leibniz thought of the "everything is for the best" mindset, which Voltaire did not agree with.

              1. Voltaire uses satire to show how wrong he though Leibniz was. The slave in Chapter XIX is Voltaire showing people a horrible situation and seeing if they will still say that the world is the best.

       B. Martin was Voltaire's presentation of what is the "right" way of thinking, or at least more right than what Leibniz had been proposing.

              1. In the chapter where Martin is introduced, XX, he provides several counterarguments that prove that the world is not the bets of all possible worlds. "Even in those cities which seem to enjoy peace, and
where the arts flourish, the inhabitants are devoured by more envy, care, and uneasiness than are experienced by a besieged town." Unhappiness exists everywhere.
    

Enlightenment

Gottfried Leibniz

• Theodicy and optimism 
• Optimism meant the optimal viewpoint
• He questioned whether or not God was all powerful. He said that because God is all powerful, all just, and all knowing the world as it is is the best world possible. Since God created the world, nothing in the world would go against His will. 

Enlightenment thinkers tried to make reason be used throughout the entire world without fail.

Encyclopedia

• Aristotle had thought of making an encyclopedia 
• Diderot wrote the Encyclopedie 
• Encyclopedias categorize information alphabetically, scientifically, and without bias.  

Montesquieu 

• Used reasoning and nuance to make decisions

Rousseau

• Wrote one of the fundamental documents for the Enlightenment and was used as the foundation for the Enlightenment's principles. 
• Within a democracy, everything is different. 
• To get along, no one looks up to a certain individual. 
• When there are laws set and everyone belongs to everyone else, society can function better. 
• The social contract is between people in a society and the people and the government. 

Jonathan Swift 

• Wrote "A Modest Proposal" which said that people should eat babies when they run out of food. 
• It was satirical, and met with discontent. 

Adam Smith

• Proposed the ethics of capitalism 
• Anyone in society, through the process of trading goods, could gain wealth

Immanuel Kant 

• Critique of Pure Reason
• Categorical imperative 
• If a rule is created for one person, it applies to everyone. 
• Forced legislators to be more thoughtful about which types of laws are allowed to be established

Jeremy Bentham 

• Argued against Kant
• Utilitarian choice- his ethical philosophy 
• The idea that what is best for the most people must be carried out